Radicalization and Resistance (completed)

• Banafsheh, Azin; Ellefsen, Rune & Sandberg, Sveinung (2024). Rasisme og motstand: Minoritetsungdom slår tilbake. Tidsskrift for samfunnsforskning. ISSN 0040-716X. 65, p. 24–45. doi: 10.18261/tfs.65.1.2. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Mange etniske minoriteter opplever rasisme som et stort problem i Norge. Dette gjelder spesielt mikroaggresjoner basert på kulturelle forestillinger om at «det norske» er overlegent. I denne artikkelen beskriver vi ulike former for rasisme og legger vekt på hvordan disse ble motarbeidet gjennom det vi kaller hverdagsmotstand. Studien er basert på 41 kvalitative intervjuer med personer med minoritetsbakgrunn, hovedsakelig svarte, som deltok i Black Lives Matter-demonstrasjonene i Norge. Fem former for hverdagsrasisme var spesielt framtredende: skjellsord og nedsettende ytringer, forskjellsbehandling og diskriminering, antakelser om ikke å være «norsk», antakelser om lav sosial status og fordomsfull inkludering. Dette var i hovedsak mikroaggresjoner som fant sted i hverdagslig sosial samhandling. De fem vanligste reaksjonene på rasisme var forsøk på å motvirke den ved å ignorere, konfrontere, dele erfaringer, rapportere og demonstrere. Studien viser hvor sentralt det hverdagslige er for å forstå etniske minoriteters opplevelser av rasisme – og motstand. Vi argumenterer for at denne typen hverdagsmotstand, er viktigere enn både politisk protest og formelle rapporteringer. Dette er fordi hverdagen har en regelmessighet og kontinuerlig tilstedeværelse som andre former for motstand mangler. Minoriteter i Norge opplever mye hets og forskjellsbehandling, men de er ikke passive ofre. Denne studien viser hvordan de aktivt forhandler, håndterer og kjemper mot rasisme.

• Ellefsen, Rune; Jan, Jämte & Sjøen, Martin Meggele (2023). Key dilemmas in the prevention of radicalization and violent extremism. Journal for Deradicalization. ISSN 2363-9849. p. 115–144. Full text in Research Archive
• Ellefsen, Rune & Sjøen, Martin Meggele (2023). 10 Norway. In McNeil-Willson, Richard & Triandafyllidou, Anna (Ed.), Routledge Handbook of Violent Extremism and Resilience. Routledge. ISSN 9781003267102. p. 153–167. doi: https:/doi.org/10.4324/9781003267102-12.
• Tutenges, Sébastien & Sandberg, Sveinung (2023). Varieties of Violence in Street Culture. Deviant Behavior. ISSN 0163-9625. 45(2), p. 179–191. doi: 10.1080/01639625.2023.2243371. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Violence is central to social life, especially for people at the margins of urban society. This article examines ethnographic data collected in Oslo among individuals who are involved in street life and crime. We propose the following typology for understanding violence in this population: respect-based violence, business violence, drunken violence, and family violence. We argue that from an emic perspective, these types are substantially different from one another and evoke varying moral evaluations. Violence that has to do with respect, business, or drinking tends to be tolerated, sometimes even celebrated, whereas family violence tends to be condemned. Violence is not a uniform phenomenon. It comes in different types and is experienced and made sense of differently across cultural contexts. These findings challenge a dominating trend in contemporary micro-sociology, spearheaded by Randall Collins, which focuses on identifying universal rules of violent situations at the expense of sensitivity to cultural variation.

• Sandberg, Sveinung; Tutenges, Sébastien & Ilan, Jonathan (2023). The street-jihadi spectrum: Marginality, radicalization and resistance to extremism. European Journal of Criminology. ISSN 1477-3708. doi: 10.1177/14773708231182520. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  For over a decade, jihadi terrorism in Europe, and the recruitment of Europeans to fight for ISIS in Syria, have increasingly involved marginalized youths from a social context of street culture, illegal drug use and crime. Existing theoretical models of the crime-terrorism nexus and radicalization arguably do not sufficiently explain the fluid and dynamic ways by which the street cultural come to be politico-religiously violent. This paper provides a novel retheorization, the street-jihadi spectrum, which is better placed to explain a wide range of behaviours, from the merely stylistic to the spectacularly violent. On the street culture end it includes subcultural play with provocative jihadi symbols and on the jihadi end the terrorism of ‘gangster-jihadists’. We emphasize that the spectrum, consisting of a multitude of confluences of street and jihadi cultures, also includes resistance to jihadism.

• Ellefsen, Rune; Banafsheh, Azin & Sandberg, Sveinung (2022). Resisting racism in everyday life: from ignoring to confrontation and protest. Ethnic and Racial Studies. ISSN 0141-9870. 45(16), p. 435–457. doi: 10.1080/01419870.2022.2094716. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Racial discrimination takes many forms and so does opposition to it. In contrast to the dominant emphasis on institutional or state efforts to counter racism, we examine how members of racially minoritized groups resist racism in their everyday lives. Drawing on 41 qualitative interviews with young, mainly Black, people in Norway, we identify five distinct ways in which they actively counter racism, as opposed to passively accepting or adapting to it. Participants resisted racism by ignoring, confronting, sharing experiences about, reporting and protesting it. Our analysis explicates the characteristics, potential outcomes, and social function of such resistance to racism. The study contributes to the literature on everyday racism and antiracism by making evident how those at the receiving end negotiate and actively oppose racist experiences.

• Ellefsen, Rune & Jämte, Jan (2022). The causes, content and consequences of repression: A framework for analyzing protest control in the counter-extremism era. Social Movement Studies. ISSN 1474-2837. doi: 10.1080/14742837.2022.2067140. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Since the early 2000s, governments in many Western democracies have introduced policies and practices to prevent radicalization and violent extremism (PRVE). This has led to the formation of a new policy arena in which an increased number of actors are tasked with PRVE work. The diverse set of actors and methods involved affect social movements in new and complex ways, but also challenges the established knowledge and analytical focus of research on the repression of social movements. In this article, we propose a conceptual framework that attends to the causes, content and consequences of protest control. We use it to examine interaction between actors in the PRVE arena and to highlight issues that are underexplored in repression research. To elucidate these issues, we use empirical examples from our own research on measures to counter extremist milieus in the Nordic countries and the UK.

• Linge, Marius; Sandberg, Sveinung & Tutenges, Sébastien (2022). Confluences of Street Culture and Jihadism: The Spatial, Bodily, and Narrative Dimensions of Radicalization. Terrorism and Political Violence. ISSN 0954-6553. p. 1–17. doi: 10.1080/09546553.2022.2042269. Full text in Research Archive
• Ellefsen, Rune & Sandberg, Sveinung (2022). Everyday Prevention of Radicalization: The impacts of family, peer and police intervention. Studies in Conflict and Terrorism. ISSN 1057-610X. doi: 10.1080/1057610X.2022.2037185. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  This study examines early intervention against individual radicalization. The data originate from interviews with young Muslims in Norway who had experienced interventions related to their own radicalization, or engaged in or witnessed interventions directed at a radicalized peer or relative. We find that informal interventions by family and friends were most prevalent in the data and played the most decisive role in interrupting radicalization, while police interventions were less common and had mixed results. Interventions by family or peers often came early in the radicalization process, were employed by trusted “insiders”, and took place as part of everyday life, thus having less detrimental consequences for radicalized individuals. We finally discuss the challenges of combining interventions by family members and friends with involvements from the police and security service.

• Ellefsen, Rune & Sandberg, Sveinung (2022). Black Lives Matter: The Role of Emotions in Political Engagement. Sociology. ISSN 0038-0385. 56(6). doi: 10.1177/00380385221081385. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  In the spring of 2020, the Black Lives Matter protests shook the Western world. Spreading from the USA, demonstrations diffused globally, especially to Europe, calling out racism in its different forms. Emotions ran high and were pivotal in igniting protests. The role of emotion in social movements has received renewed scholarly attention during the last decades. It plays an important role at every stage of protest, but few studies have traced its part in individuals’ shifting engagement over time. This study examines the role of emotion during the global wave of Black Lives Matter protests. Based on retrospective interviews with 38 participants in Black Lives Matter demonstrations in Norway, we identify the role of emotion before, during and after their participation. Our findings help explain how individual patterns of participation develop in the course of a wave of protest, and also provide insights into the consequences of the recent Black Lives Matter protests in Europe.

• Ellefsen, Rune & Sandberg, Sveinung (2021). A repertoire of everyday resistance: young Muslims’ responses to anti-Muslim hostility. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies. ISSN 1369-183X. 48(11), p. 2601–2619. doi: 10.1080/1369183X.2021.1894913. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Research has shown widespread discrimination and hostility toward Muslims in Western countries. There is less knowledge of how Muslims resist, oppose, or challenge such behaviour. Based on in-depth interviews with 90 young Muslims in Norway, this study explores responses to anti-Muslim hostility. We describe a repertoire of everyday resistance: talking back, entering dialogue, living the example, denying significance, and talking down. The first three forms occur in face-to-face encounters while the latter two are retrospect sense-making of negative experiences. We conceptualise these responses as everyday resistance because they entail ways of actively countering anti-Muslim hostility, as opposed to passively accepting or adapting to it. This repertoire of everyday resistance can make it easier to avoid victimisation, protect religious identities, and ease the daily lives of young Muslims. Increased attention to narrative resistance in studies of everyday resistance will provide a better understanding of the many ways in which marginalised groups cope, resist, and struggle with their stigma.

• Tutenges, Sébastien & Sandberg, Sveinung (2021). Street culture meets extremism: How Muslims involved in street life and crime oppose jihadism. British Journal of Criminology. ISSN 0007-0955. 62(6), p. 1502–1517. doi: 10.1093/bjc/azab117. Full text in Research Archive
• Sandberg, Sveinung & Ibarra Rojas, Lucero (2021). A farewell to the lone hero researcher: team research and writing. Crime, law and social change. ISSN 0925-4994. p. 1–18. doi: 10.1007/s10611-021-10006-x. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Criminology have long celebrated the lone hero researcher. Doing and writing up research in solitude has been the key to academic success and institutional promotions. However, the social sciences in general have increasingly moved towards more collaborative ways of doing research, and co-authorship has become more common. In this study, we summarize and discuss the pros and cons of working in teams when doing qualitative research. Drawing upon our own experiences from Mexico and Norway, we argue for a radical approach to team research and co-authorship, which we describe as team writing. Most importantly, we suggest opening up to include stakeholders and community partners, thus challenging the borders between researchers and those researched. This is arguably particularly important for research done in the academic, geographical and topical periphery of criminology. Team research and writing answers some of the critique of power inequality, representativity and lack of diversity in contemporary academic research. We also believe that team research, and writing, can make criminological research more multifaceted, reflexive, and thus better.

• Qvotrup Jensen, Sune; Fuglsang Larsen, Jeppe & Sandberg, Sveinung (2021). Rap, Islam and Jihadi Cool: The attractions of the Western jihadi subculture. Crime, Media, Culture: An International Journal. ISSN 1741-6590. doi: 10.1177/17416590211025573. Full text in Research Archive
• Ellefsen, Rune (2021). Why not talk about repression? Radical Activism and its Responses to Repression. PArtecipazione e COnflitto. ISSN 1972-7623. 14(1), p. 480–496. doi: 10.1285/i20356609v14i1p480. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  By exploring silence as a response to repression, this study contributes to the literature on the dynamic rela-tionship between protest and repression; it examines the ways in which certain radical activists responded with silence to the escalating repression they were experiencing. Analysis explains how and why they remained si-lent, and the consequences of that silence for individual activists and collective mobilization. Based on a case study of the Stop Huntingdon Animal Cruelty (SHAC) campaign in the UK, this article includes the reflections of activists who experienced repression first-hand. By analysing in-depth interviews and other qualitative data, the study identifies four different forms of silence among the activists facing repression: silence as a strategy, si-lence as a cultural trait, silence due to over-confidence and silence resulting from the normalization of repres-sion. The results show how cultural and strategic dynamics play out in protestors' experiences of and responses to repression. The study demonstrates the importance of the neglected research area of the response to re-pression for advancing our understanding of the conditions under which repression leads either to demobiliza-tion or to mobilization.

• Banafsheh, Azin; Ellefsen, Rune & Sandberg, Sveinung (2021). "Jævla terrorist!" Muslimhets og hverdagsmotstand. In Ødegård, Guro & Pedersen, Willy (Ed.), UNGDOMMEN. Cappelen Damm Akademisk. ISSN 978-82-02-73299-8. p. 317–335. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  De siste ti til tjue årene har frykten for islam på mange måter erstattet tradisjonell rasisme i Norge (Bangstad & Døving, 2015). Muslimhat, hets og antiislamisme preger hverdagen til de rundt 200 000 norske muslimene her. Skjeve blikk på gata, fiendtlige kommentarer og mer formell diskriminering er uttrykk for skepsis og fordommer mot islam. Noen ganger får retorikken også mer alvorlige utslag. Antiislamistisk retorikk var bakgrunnen for det største terrorangrepet på norsk jord, i 2011 (Berntzen & Sandberg, 2014). Senest i 2019 var det et nytt forsøk på massedrap i Bærum, med muslimer som mål. Bare tilfeldigheter gjorde at angrepet ikke fikk et større omfang, som terrorangrepet 22. juli. I et stort forskningsprosjekt har vi intervjuet 90 norske muslimer i alderen 18–32 år. Med utgangspunkt i disse intervjuene gir vi en oversikt over unge muslimers opplevelser av muslimhets. Hatvold, netthets og diskriminering får mye oppmerksomhet i media. Men den mest utbredte hetsen unge muslimer opplever, den som preger hverdagen deres, er nedlatende kommentarer, negativt ladete spørsmål og skjellsord, både fra fremmede og fra bekjente. Det er få samfunnsforskere som har undersøkt reaksjonene på slike ubehagelige hendelser. Vi ser derfor på hvilke strategier unge muslimer har i møte med hat og stereotypier. I dette kapitlet spør vi hvilke former for muslimhets de opplever, og hva de gjør for å yte motstand mot hetsen og leve med den? Resultatene våre nyanserer og utfordrer bildet av det passive muslimske offeret som preger både den offentlige debatten og forskningen på muslimfiendtlighet.

• Linge, Marius (2021). Muslim narratives of desistance among Norwegian street criminals: Stories of reconciliation, purification and exclusion. European Journal of Criminology. ISSN 1477-3708. p. 1–18. doi: 10.1177/14773708211018648.
• Ellefsen, Rune & Jan, Jämte (2020). Countering extremism(s): Differences in local prevention of left-wing, right-wing and Islamist extremism. Journal for Deradicalization. ISSN 2363-9849. 24(24), p. 191–231. Show summary

  Policies to prevent radicalization and violent extremism (PRVE) frequently target a number of social movements seen as threats to national security. Often, this includes militant Islamist, right-wing and left-wing extremist milieus. In this article, we ask what distinguishes the ways in which local practitioners perceive and respond to these three milieus. Based on in-depth interviews with public servants in Sweden, we show how the milieus are seen to represent different types of threats, hold core values that resonate differently with dominant values in mainstream society and require responses that challenge public servants in diverging ways. Building on our analysis, we introduce a multidimensional model that clarifies why practitioners relate differently to each milieu. By including the rarely examined left-wing milieu, we are able to showcase the complexity of local PRVE work. Our study sheds new light on the challenges experienced by practitioners who are tasked to implement PRVE policy and demonstrates the problems of approaching “violent extremism” as a uniform phenomenon.

• Ellefsen, Rune (2020). Prevention of radicalization as an emergent field of plural policing in Norway: The accelerating role of militant Islamists. Nordic Journal of Studies in Policing (NJSP). ISSN 2703-7045. 8(1), p. 1–23. doi: 10.18261/ISSN.2703-7045-2021-01-03. Show summary

  This article provides a brief history of the policing of militant Islamism in Norway between 2009 and 2019. The numerous counter-responses to militant Islamism throughout this decade, it is argued, was a primary factor that accelerated the emergence of prevention of radicalization and violent extremism (PRVE) as a new field of policy and plural policing in Norway. The emergence of this field in Norway is set against similar fields internationally, and related to the evolution of the global Salafist-jihadist movement. Based on interviews with practitioners involved in PRVE and other types of qualitative data, analysis traces the evolution of this field of policing and separates it into five phases, which follows the escalation and de-escalation of conflict between the militant Islamists and those tasked to police them. The article also discusses critical aspects and consequences of this emergent field, particularly regarding the role of the police and intelligence in policing of radicalization.

• Myhre Sunde, Hans; Ilan, Jonathan & Sandberg, Sveinung (2020). A Cultural Criminology of ‘New’ Jihad: Insights from Propaganda Magazines. Crime, Media, Culture: An International Journal. ISSN 1741-6590. doi: 10.1177/1741659020915509. Full text in Research Archive
• Sandberg, Sveinung & Colvin, Sarah (2020). ‘ISIS is not Islam’: Epistemic Injustice, Everyday Religion, and Young Muslims’ Narrative Resistance. British Journal of Criminology. ISSN 0007-0955. 60(6), p. 1585–1605. doi: 10.1093/bjc/azaa035. Full text in Research Archive
• Ilan, Jonathan & Sandberg, Sveinung (2019). How 'gangsters' become jihadists: Bourdieu, criminology and the crime-terrorism nexus. European Journal of Criminology. ISSN 1477-3708. 16(3), p. 278–294. doi: 10.1177/1477370819828936. Full text in Research Archive
• Mohamed, Idil Abdi Abdulle & Sandberg, Sveinung (2019). "Jeg kan ikke se søstre gå i den fella". Unge muslimer som forebyggere. In Lid, Stian & Heierstad, Geir (Ed.), Forebygging av radikalisering og voldelig ekstremisme. Norske handlemåter i møtet med terror. Gyldendal Akademisk. ISSN 9788205518346. p. 199–222. Show summary

  Risikoen for terrorangrep i Norge er stor. Det har skjedd før og vil høyst sannsynlig skje igjen. For å redusere terrortrusler og økt polarisering er store deler av det norske velferdssamfunnet involvert i forebygging. Lærere og politi, ansatte i NAV og PST, ungdomsarbeidere og trossamfunn – listen over sentrale aktører er lang. Samtidig er det stor usikkerhet knyttet til hva som kan utgjøre en trussel. I denne boka retter etablerte og nye forskere søkelyset mot hvordan norsk forebygging praktiseres. Hvem skal forebygge? Hva fungerer og hvorfor? Virker enkelte tiltak mot sin hensikt? Hvordan organiserer man best forebygging i en velferdsstat? Hva skal til for at mennesker forlater sin ekstremisme? Disse spørsmålene belyses gjennom erfaringer fra dem som skal iverksette forebyggende tiltak, og fra dem som er eller kan være i målgruppen for tiltakene. Det norske samfunnets ønske om å forebygge radikalisering og voldelig ekstremisme er større enn evnen. Når velferdsaktører forlater sine roller som hjelpere og tilretteleggere og i stedet kontrollerer og sender bekymringsmeldinger, er veien kort til stigmatisering og ekskludering. To skritt fram under forebyggingsfanen blir fort minst ett skritt tilbake. Forebygging av radikalisering og voldelig ekstremisme gir viktige bidrag til den offentlige samtalen om hvordan man bør forstå og innrette forebyggingen. Målet med boka er å belyse og styrke forebyggingen av radikalisering og voldelig ekstremisme.

• Sandberg, Sveinung & Andersen, Jan Christoffer (2019). Opposing violent extremism through counternarratives: Four forms of narrative resistance. In Fleetwood, Jennifer; Presser, Lois; Sandberg, Sveinung & Ugelvik, Thomas (Ed.), The Emerald Handbook of Narrative Criminology. Emerald Group Publishing Limited. ISSN 9781787690066. p. 445–466. Full text in Research Archive
• Tutenges, Sébastien (2019). Narrative ethnography under pressure: Researching storytelling on the street. In Fleetwood, Jennifer; Presser, Lois; Sandberg, Sveinung & Ugelvik, Thomas (Ed.), The Emerald Handbook of Narrative Criminology. Emerald Group Publishing Limited. ISSN 9781787690066.
• Andersen, Jan Christoffer & Sandberg, Sveinung (2018). Islamic State Propaganda: Between social movement framing and subcultural provocation. Terrorism and Political Violence. ISSN 0954-6553. 32(7), p. 1506–1526. doi: 10.1080/09546553.2018.1484356. Full text in Research Archive

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• Linge, Marius & Bangstad, Sindre (2020). Salafisme i Norge: historien om Islam Net og Profetens Ummah. Frekk Forlag AS. ISBN 978-82-93097-98-3. 114 p.
• Sandberg, Sveinung; Andersen, Jan Christoffer; Gasser, Tiffany Linn Utvær; Linge, Marius; Mohamed, Idil Abdi Abdulle & Shokr, Samah [Show all 7 contributors for this article] (2018). Unge muslimske stemmer: Om tro og ekstremisme. Universitetsforlaget. ISBN 9788215031262. 280 p. Show summary

  De som kommer til orde i denne boka er den moderate majoriteten av unge norske muslimer. De reflekterer om deres personlige tro, religiøse praksis, gruppetilhørigheter og særlig om synet de har på ekstreme bevegelser. Slik får vi en rikere forståelse av den motstanden mot jihadisme som er vanlig norske muslimer - omfanget, styrken, grunnene og engasjementet. Boka tar samtidig for seg at det er store forskjeller blant «vanlige» muslimer når det gjelder fortolkninger av islam, og at det er kamp mellom moderate og mer ekstreme strømninger om definisjonene av grunnleggende begreper og fortellinger. En rød tråd i boka er at det ikke nødvendigvis er politiet, kommunene eller andre offentlige instanser som er frontlinjen for bekjempelse av ekstremisme. Voldelig jihadisme bekjempes daglig i muslimske miljøer, og en viktig del av dette er kampen mellom forskjellige fortolkninger av islam.

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• Sandberg, Sveinung (2021). MuslimVoices: Good practice exchange.
• Ellefsen, Rune & Sandberg, Sveinung (2021). Interrupting radicalization: The impact of family and peer-based vs. police-based intervention.
• Ellefsen, Rune; Sjøen, Martin Meggele & Jämte, Jan (2021). Key dilemmas in the prevention of radicalization and violent extremism.
• Ellefsen, Rune & Sandberg, Sveinung (2021). Black Lives Matter: The role of emotions for mobilization and demobilization. Show summary

  In the spring of 2020, in the midst of the coronavirus pandemic, the Black Lives Matter (BLM) protests shook the world. Spreading from the US, demonstrations diffused globally, especially to Europe, calling out all kinds of racism, particularly structural racism and that emanating from the police. Emotions ran high and were pivotal in igniting protests. The role of emotion in social movements has received renewed scholarly attention during the last two decades. It plays an important role at every stage of protest, but few studies have traced its part in individuals’ mobilization and demobilization over time. This study examines the role of emotion in trajectories of engagement and disengagement during the global wave of BLM protests. Based on retrospective in-depth interviews with 38 participants in BLM demonstrations in Norway, we identify the role of emotion before, during and after their participation. Our findings help explain how individual patterns of participation develop in the course of a wave of protest, and also provide insights into the consequences of the recent BLM protests in Europe.

• Banafsheh, Azin & Pedersen, Willy (2021). "Jævla terrorist!" Muslimhets og hverdagsmotsand.
• Banafsheh, Azin (2021). Alina (18): – Jeg ble kalt «muslimske faen». [Newspaper]. VG.
• Ellefsen, Rune (2021). Forsker på tiltak mot radikalisering: Har blandede erfaringer med politiet. [Newspaper]. Dagsavisen. Show summary

  Ny studie om radikalisering: Advarer mot for tidlig involvering av politi

• Ellefsen, Rune (2021). BLM i Norge skapte ny bølge med aktivister. [Internet]. NRK.
• Ellefsen, Rune & Sandberg, Sveinung (2021). Black Lives Matter: The role of emotions for mobilization and demobilization.
• Ellefsen, Rune (2021). The emergence of radicalization policing in Nordic countries. Nordic Criminology Blog. Show summary

  The policing of radicalization has emerged as a new field of policy and policing in the Nordic countries during the last decade. It involves a fundamental shift in the societal response to individuals associated with radicalization or extremism.

• Ellefsen, Rune & Jämte, Jan (2021). Violent extremism is not a uniform phenomenon: The key differences in prevention of left-wing, right-wing, and Islamist extremism. Right Now!. Show summary

  Policies to prevent radicalization and violent extremism frequently target militant Islamists, right-wing and left-wing extremists. In a recent study we have examined what distinguishes the ways in which local practitioners perceive and respond to each of the milieus. Our results show that there is a clear discrepancy between the uniform way violent extremism is presented in policy, and how front line practitioners experience the different forms of extremism at the local level.

• Banafsheh, Azin (2021). "Jævla terrorist!" Muslimhets og hverdagsmotstand.
• Banafsheh, Azin & Ellefsen, Rune (2021). "Jævla terrorist!" Muslimhets og hverdagsmotstand.
• Jämte, Jan & Ellefsen, Rune (2021). Violent extremism is not a uniform phenomenon .
• Ellefsen, Rune & Jämte, Jan (2021). Violent extremism is not a uniform phenomenon: The key differences in prevention of left-wing, right-wing, and Islamist extremism.
• Tutenges, Sébastien (2021). Street culture meets jihadism.
• Tutenges, Sébastien (2021). Wild Pursuits.
• Tutenges, Sébastien (2021). Street-level Counter-Terrorism.
• Tutenges, Sébastien (2021). Varieties of Violence.
• Ellefsen, Rune & Sandberg, Sveinung (2021). Interrupting radicalization: The impacts of family, peer and police intervention.
• Mohamed, Idil Abdi Abdulle (2020). Hvordan er det å vokse opp som ung muslim i Norge?
• Banafsheh, Azin; Ellefsen, Rune & Sandberg, Sveinung (2020). Hvordan møter muslimer religiøs hets? Dagbladet. ISSN 0805-3766. Show summary

  Muslimfiendtlige holdninger og hets er utbredt i Norge, men hva vet vi om muslimers reaksjoner? Vår studie viser at muslimers måter å respondere på hets på kan beskytte deres egenverd og religiøse identitet. Det kan også begrense virkningen av hets.

• Ellefsen, Rune; Banafsheh, Azin & Jakobsen, Siw Ellen (2020). Hvordan møter unge muslimer hets? [Internet]. Forskning.no. Show summary

  Hva gjør det med deg å jevnlig bli kalt «jævla terrorist» eller andre stygge ting? Flere av muslimene som er intervjuet i en ny undersøkelse har positive erfaringer med å møte den som hetser dem med vennlighet og dialog. Men denne strategien kan koste. Det er slitsomt å forsvare seg hele tiden.

• Ellefsen, Rune & Sandberg, Sveinung (2020). A repertoire of everyday resistance: How young Muslims' respond to anti-Muslim hostility.
• Ellefsen, Rune; Jakobsen, Siw Ellen & Banafsheh, Azin (2020). How do young Muslims deal with hate speech and verbal assaults? [Internet]. ScienceNorway.no.
• Ellefsen, Rune (2020). Opponent på NKVTS-seminar: Mental health issues in prevention of violent extremism.
• Ellefsen, Rune & Jan, Jämte (2020). Being labelled as “violent extremists”: The consequences of soft repression. Right Now!. Show summary

  What are the consequences of being labeled as a “violent extremist”? How does labeling affect individual activists, their organizations, and the social movement they are part of? In a recent study, we show that labeling – and the associated stigma – affects different radical groups in different ways and that it sometimes fails to demobilize the primary targets of the repressive actions, that is, the most militant groups. Rather, the effects are most evident amongst organizations that mobilize inclusively and openly, using primarily conventional protest tactics. From this we highlight the potential “backfire effects” of labelling, as the most militant groups might be further radicalized by this form of soft repression.

• Jakobsen, Siw Ellen & Ellefsen, Rune (2020). Hva skjer når man kaller aktivistgrupper for voldelige ekstremister? [Internet]. Forskning.no.
• Ellefsen, Rune (2020). Differences in local prevention of left-wing, right-wing and Islamist extremism.
• Ellefsen, Rune (2020). Hvordan unge muslimer opplever og reagerer på muslimhets.
• Ellefsen, Rune & Mohamed, Idil (2020). Kunnskapsoppsummering til Bufdir: "Å være unge muslim i Norge: hverdagstro, opplevelser av og reaksjoner på muslimhets". Show summary

  Kunnskapsoppsummering til Barne-, ungdoms- og familiedirektoratet i forbindelse med arbeidet med regjeringens handlingsplan mot diskriminering av og hat mot muslimer.

• Ellefsen, Rune & Skogvang, Stig Gøran (2020). Ekstremisme. [Radio]. Radio Nova.
• Ellefsen, Rune (2020). Preventing radicalization and violent extremism in Norway: The emergence of a new field of policy and practice. Show summary

  The prevention of radicalization is an example of a "wicked problem": a problem which no single actor can handle alone, and which is almost impossible to solve. Throughout the last decade, Nordic governments have therefore imposed increased cooperation across state, private and civil society actors to strengthen the prevention of radicalization and violent extremism (PRVE). Collaborative PRVE efforts has involved the assignment of new responsibilities to schools, social and child care services, civil society organizations, religious societies, local communities and others - also involving the police and its secret service. PRVE has thus changed from primarily being a law enforcement issue, to become the shared responsibility of citizens, local communities and an array of state and private actors. A work logic have been established that centers around forestalling criminal extremist acts from ever happening. The implementation of these new responsibilities, collaborative practices and preemptive logics have been crucial in creating what is currently a loose nation-wide structure and apparatus for PRVE in Norway. This paper traces the emergence of PRVE as a new policy field in Norway, provides a description of its characteristics and associated practices, while also discussing the role of the police and security-orientation in multi-agency PRVE work.

• Ellefsen, Rune & Jämte, Jan (2019). Being labeled as “violent extremists”: The effects of soft repression on individual, organizational and movement levels. Show summary

  This paper examines the effects of soft repression on social movement activists. By drawing on activists’ perceptions, we develop a multi-layered analytical framework that captures the experienced effects of soft repression at the individual, organizational and movement levels. Our results show that soft repression–in particular, labeling and stigmatization –primarily affect the individual level by triggering self-policing and self-control among activists. By introducing a model that incorporates several radical social movement organizations, we also show how labeling and stigmatization affect different radical groups indifferent ways, and sometimes fail to demobilize the primary targets of the repressive actions, that is, the most militant and clandestine groups. Instead, the de-mobilizing effects seem most evident in organizations that mobilize openly and inclusively. Our analysis is based on in-depth interviews with thirty-one activists from the radical left-libertarian movement (RLLM) in Sweden, most of which have been active in organizations labeled as “violence-affirming extremists” by the Swedish government.

• Ellefsen, Rune (2019). Managing militant Islamism in Norway (2009-2019): A process-oriented perspective. Show summary

  This paper analyses how the management of militant Islamism changed in Norway between 2009 and 2019. These changes are examined in relation to developments in the militant Islamist milieu and the global Salafist-jihadist movement it was part of, together with key events at the national and international levels. The period is analyzed as an “episode of contention” that has five distinct phases, which followed the escalation and de-escalation of conflict between the militant Islamists and those tasked to manage them. Analysis also identifies key events that led the way to the establishment of a national structure and apparatus for monitoring and managing radicalization and violent extremism. The analysis draws on several qualitative data sources.

• Tutenges, Sébastien (2019). Street culture meets jihadism.
• Sandberg, Sveinung (2019). Everyday Islam and violent extremism: Counter narratives and public sociology.
• Ellefsen, Rune; Gule, Lars & Høgestøl, Sofie A.E. (2019). Fremmedkrigere og terror.
• Sandberg, Sveinung (2019). Team ethnography and public criminology.
• Sandberg, Sveinung (2019). Street-jihadi nexus.
• Linge, Marius (2018). Hva skaper radikalisering?
• Linge, Marius; Andersen, Jan Christoffer; Mohamed, Idil Abdi Abdulle & Shokr, Samah (2018). Jihadism, faith and everyday resistance.
• Linge, Marius & Mohamed, Idil Abdi Abdulle (2018). Jihadism, faith and everyday resistance.
• Sandberg, Sveinung; Linge, Marius; Andersen, Jan Christoffer; Mohamed, Idil Abdi Abdulle; Shokr, Samah & Gasser, Tiffany Linn Utvær (2018). Jihadism, faith and everyday resistance.
• Linge, Marius; Shokr, Samah; Mohamed, Idil Abdi Abdulle; Gasser, Tiffany Linn Utvær; Andersen, Jan Christoffer & Sandberg, Sveinung (2018). Jihad - det er jackpot for dem.
• Linge, Marius; Shokr, Samah; Mohamed, Idil Abdi Abdulle; Gasser, Tiffany Linn Utvær; Andersen, Jan Christoffer & Sandberg, Sveinung (2018). Jihad - det er jackpot for dem.
• Sandberg, Sveinung (2018). Gatekultur, radikalisering og motstand.
• Tutenges, Sébastien (2018). Modstand mod jihadisme.
• Tutenges, Sébastien (2018). Oppostion from the street.
• Andersen, Jan Christoffer & Sandberg, Sveinung (2018). Unge norske muslimer driver «hverdagsmotstand» mot ekstremisme . Aftenposten Viten. ISSN 2464-3033.
• Linge, Marius (2018). Jihadism, faith and everyday resistance.
• Andersen, Jan Christoffer; Linge, Marius; Mohamed, Idil Abdi Abdulle & Tutenges, Sébastien (2018). Motstand mot ekstremisme.
• Sandberg, Sveinung (2018). Gammel gatekultur møter en ny jihadi cool.
• Sandberg, Sveinung (2018). How ‘gangsters’ become jihadists (and why most don’t): Bourdieu, criminology and the crime-terrorism nexus.
• Sandberg, Sveinung; Andersen, Jan Christoffer; Gasser, Tiffany Linn Utvær; Mohamed, Idil Abdi Abdulle & Linge, Marius (2018). Unge muslimske stemmer.
• Sandberg, Sveinung (2018). Unge Muslimske Stemmer: Om tro og ekstremisme.
• Sandberg, Sveinung (2018). Changes in Street Culture: The new role of religion.
• Sandberg, Sveinung (2018). How 'gangsters' become jihadists (and why most don't): Bourdieu, criminology and the crime-terrorism nexus .
• Tutenges, Sébastien (2018). Gatekultur og jihadisme.
• Tutenges, Sébastien (2018). Street crime and jihadism.
• Sandberg, Sveinung (2017). Gatekultur og Jihadisme.
• Linge, Marius (2017). Resistance towards jihadism among Young Norwegian Salafis.
• Sandberg, Sveinung (2017). The street-jihadi nexus.
• Shokr, Samah & Linge, Marius (2017). Forskere forklarer hvorfor unge muslimske menn og kvinner tiltrekkes, eller motstår, voldelig jihadisme.
• Tutenges, Sébastien (2017). Emotional barriers to jihadism.

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