Radikalisering og motstand Jihadistisk subkultur og gatekultur: fortellinger om radikalisering og motstand

• Banafsheh, Azin; Ellefsen, Rune & Sandberg, Sveinung (2024). Rasisme og motstand: Minoritetsungdom slår tilbake. Tidsskrift for samfunnsforskning (TfS). ISSN 0040-716X. 65(1), s. 24–45. doi: 10.18261/tfs.65.1.2. Fulltekst i vitenarkiv Vis sammendrag

  Mange etniske minoriteter opplever rasisme som et stort problem i Norge. Dette gjelder spesielt mikroaggresjoner basert på kulturelle forestillinger om at «det norske» er overlegent. I denne artikkelen beskriver vi ulike former for rasisme og legger vekt på hvordan disse ble motarbeidet gjennom det vi kaller hverdagsmotstand. Studien er basert på 41 kvalitative intervjuer med personer med minoritetsbakgrunn, hovedsakelig svarte, som deltok i Black Lives Matter-demonstrasjonene i Norge. Fem former for hverdagsrasisme var spesielt framtredende: skjellsord og nedsettende ytringer, forskjellsbehandling og diskriminering, antakelser om ikke å være «norsk», antakelser om lav sosial status og fordomsfull inkludering. Dette var i hovedsak mikroaggresjoner som fant sted i hverdagslig sosial samhandling. De fem vanligste reaksjonene på rasisme var forsøk på å motvirke den ved å ignorere, konfrontere, dele erfaringer, rapportere og demonstrere. Studien viser hvor sentralt det hverdagslige er for å forstå etniske minoriteters opplevelser av rasisme – og motstand. Vi argumenterer for at denne typen hverdagsmotstand, er viktigere enn både politisk protest og formelle rapporteringer. Dette er fordi hverdagen har en regelmessighet og kontinuerlig tilstedeværelse som andre former for motstand mangler. Minoriteter i Norge opplever mye hets og forskjellsbehandling, men de er ikke passive ofre. Denne studien viser hvordan de aktivt forhandler, håndterer og kjemper mot rasisme.

• Tutenges, Sébastien & Sandberg, Sveinung (2024). Street-Level Counter Terrorism. Opposition to violent jihadism in criminal milieus. I Amir, Rostami & Edling, Christofer (Red.), Violent Extremism: A Nordic Outlook. Lexington Books. ISSN 9781793632852. Fulltekst i vitenarkiv
• Tutenges, Sébastien & Sandberg, Sveinung (2023). Varieties of Violence in Street Culture. Deviant Behavior. ISSN 0163-9625. 45(2), s. 179–191. doi: 10.1080/01639625.2023.2243371. Fulltekst i vitenarkiv Vis sammendrag

  Violence is central to social life, especially for people at the margins of urban society. This article examines ethnographic data collected in Oslo among individuals who are involved in street life and crime. We propose the following typology for understanding violence in this population: respect-based violence, business violence, drunken violence, and family violence. We argue that from an emic perspective, these types are substantially different from one another and evoke varying moral evaluations. Violence that has to do with respect, business, or drinking tends to be tolerated, sometimes even celebrated, whereas family violence tends to be condemned. Violence is not a uniform phenomenon. It comes in different types and is experienced and made sense of differently across cultural contexts. These findings challenge a dominating trend in contemporary micro-sociology, spearheaded by Randall Collins, which focuses on identifying universal rules of violent situations at the expense of sensitivity to cultural variation.

• Ellefsen, Rune & Sjøen, Martin Meggele (2023). 10 Norway. I McNeil-Willson, Richard & Triandafyllidou, Anna (Red.), Routledge Handbook of Violent Extremism and Resilience. Routledge. ISSN 9781003267102. s. 153–167. doi: 10.4324/9781003267102-12. Fulltekst i vitenarkiv Vis sammendrag

  The last decade has witnessed growing concern about violent extremism as many European countries have introduced policies for preventing and countering violent extremism (P/CVE). Norway is no exception, launching three such action plans. Having also suffered from an extensive history of right-wing extremism, Norway was once the scene of the relatively successful pioneering of the European EXIT programme. However, extremist groups today are more socially complex and in rethinking how society can strengthen P/CVE approaches through social networks, ‘resilience’ has emerged as a key element of what might make people resistant to violence and extremism. This chapter provides an overview of developments in violent extremism in Norway over the last decades, and the social and political responses to it. We examine how resilience manifests in policy and how it relates to P/CVE practice, as well as discuss the implications of Norwegian P/CVE approaches. We distinguish between security-oriented and pro-social approaches to resilience and explore how this differentiation may be used to highlight an antagonism between securitisation and social transformation. In our conclusion, we suggest deemphasising securitised P/CVE approaches in favour of developing pro-social forms of resilience to violent extremism in Norway.

• Sandberg, Sveinung; Tutenges, Sébastien & Ilan, Jonathan (2023). The street-jihadi spectrum: Marginality, radicalization and resistance to extremism. European Journal of Criminology. ISSN 1477-3708. doi: 10.1177/14773708231182520. Fulltekst i vitenarkiv Vis sammendrag

  For over a decade, jihadi terrorism in Europe, and the recruitment of Europeans to fight for ISIS in Syria, have increasingly involved marginalized youths from a social context of street culture, illegal drug use and crime. Existing theoretical models of the crime-terrorism nexus and radicalization arguably do not sufficiently explain the fluid and dynamic ways by which the street cultural come to be politico-religiously violent. This paper provides a novel retheorization, the street-jihadi spectrum, which is better placed to explain a wide range of behaviours, from the merely stylistic to the spectacularly violent. On the street culture end it includes subcultural play with provocative jihadi symbols and on the jihadi end the terrorism of ‘gangster-jihadists’. We emphasize that the spectrum, consisting of a multitude of confluences of street and jihadi cultures, also includes resistance to jihadism.

• Ellefsen, Rune; Jan, Jämte & Sjøen, Martin Meggele (2023). Key dilemmas in the prevention of radicalization and violent extremism. Journal for Deradicalization. s. 115–144. Fulltekst i vitenarkiv Vis sammendrag

  Work on preventing radicalization, and violent extremism (PRVE) is beset with dilemmas, difficult considerations and pitfalls. Based on a synthesis of previous research and original data, this article conceptualizes and discusses three key dilemmas present in PRVE practice and policy: that of civil liberties versus security, that of too soft versus too hard measures, and that of intention versus outcome. The article illustrates how these dilemmas play out and are deliberated upon by PRVE practitioners and policymakers in Nordic countries. The exploration of these dilemmas and the different action pathways they involve can function as “sensitizing tools” to encourage reflexivity around the complexity and unintended consequences of PRVE. The dilemmas also reflect broader issues of societal and scholarly importance, as they make evident several critical ramifications of PRVE.

• Linge, Marius; Sandberg, Sveinung & Tutenges, Sébastien (2022). Confluences of Street Culture and Jihadism: The Spatial, Bodily, and Narrative Dimensions of Radicalization. Terrorism and Political Violence. ISSN 0954-6553. s. 1–17. doi: 10.1080/09546553.2022.2042269. Fulltekst i vitenarkiv Vis sammendrag

  Research on the new crime-terror nexus has focused on examining the confluences of criminal and jihadist milieus. This article contributes to this research, using insights from criminological theory and analyzing data from interviews with Muslim men who have been exposed to jihadism and have a background in street life and crime. We propose that the connection between street crime and jihadism can be seen in three decisive points of confluence: places, bodies, and narratives. We show how specific places (e.g. prisons) enable the encounter between particular bodies (e.g. violently competent bodies) and the engagement or disengagement with certain extremist narratives (e.g. stories of redemption through violence). The crime-terror literature emphasizes that these points of confluence are sources of radicalization. We expand upon this by arguing that they may also serve as venues for resisting or rejecting politico-religious extremism. The study demonstrates that radicalization is only one possible outcome of the confluences between street culture and jihadism.

• Ellefsen, Rune; Banafsheh, Azin & Sandberg, Sveinung (2022). Resisting racism in everyday life: from ignoring to confrontation and protest. Ethnic and Racial Studies. ISSN 0141-9870. 45(16), s. 435–457. doi: 10.1080/01419870.2022.2094716. Fulltekst i vitenarkiv Vis sammendrag

  Racial discrimination takes many forms and so does opposition to it. In contrast to the dominant emphasis on institutional or state efforts to counter racism, we examine how members of racially minoritized groups resist racism in their everyday lives. Drawing on 41 qualitative interviews with young, mainly Black, people in Norway, we identify five distinct ways in which they actively counter racism, as opposed to passively accepting or adapting to it. Participants resisted racism by ignoring, confronting, sharing experiences about, reporting and protesting it. Our analysis explicates the characteristics, potential outcomes, and social function of such resistance to racism. The study contributes to the literature on everyday racism and antiracism by making evident how those at the receiving end negotiate and actively oppose racist experiences.

• Ellefsen, Rune & Jämte, Jan (2022). The causes, content and consequences of repression: A framework for analyzing protest control in the counter-extremism era. Social Movement Studies. ISSN 1474-2837. doi: 10.1080/14742837.2022.2067140. Fulltekst i vitenarkiv Vis sammendrag

  Since the early 2000s, governments in many Western democracies have introduced policies and practices to prevent radicalization and violent extremism (PRVE). This has led to the formation of a new policy arena in which an increased number of actors are tasked with PRVE work. The diverse set of actors and methods involved affect social movements in new and complex ways, but also challenges the established knowledge and analytical focus of research on the repression of social movements. In this article, we propose a conceptual framework that attends to the causes, content and consequences of protest control. We use it to examine interaction between actors in the PRVE arena and to highlight issues that are underexplored in repression research. To elucidate these issues, we use empirical examples from our own research on measures to counter extremist milieus in the Nordic countries and the UK.

• Ellefsen, Rune & Sandberg, Sveinung (2022). Everyday Prevention of Radicalization: The impacts of family, peer and police intervention. Studies in Conflict and Terrorism. ISSN 1057-610X. doi: 10.1080/1057610X.2022.2037185. Fulltekst i vitenarkiv Vis sammendrag

  This study examines early intervention against individual radicalization. The data originate from interviews with young Muslims in Norway who had experienced interventions related to their own radicalization, or engaged in or witnessed interventions directed at a radicalized peer or relative. We find that informal interventions by family and friends were most prevalent in the data and played the most decisive role in interrupting radicalization, while police interventions were less common and had mixed results. Interventions by family or peers often came early in the radicalization process, were employed by trusted “insiders”, and took place as part of everyday life, thus having less detrimental consequences for radicalized individuals. We finally discuss the challenges of combining interventions by family members and friends with involvements from the police and security service.

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